Influence arabe en berbère Ghomara nommera Hannouche El J

5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

17

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

19

INTRODUCTION

21

TRANSCRIPTION

31

I. PHONOLOGY

33 1. Consonants 331.1. Weakening 341.1.1. Weakening of

t

351.1.1.1. Spirantization of

t

351.1.1.2. Debuccalization of

t

361.1.1.3. Elision of

t

381.1.2. Weakening of

d

391.1.3. Weakening of

k

391.1.3.1. Spirantization of

k

391.1.3.2. Debuccalization of

k

401.1.4. Weakening of

g

411.1.5. Weakening of

b

411.2. Phonemic status of weakened consonants 411.2.1. Phonemic distinction between

t

and

θ

421.2.2. Phonemic distinction between

d

and

δ

421.2.3. Phonemic distinction between

š

and

ç

421.2.4. Phonemic distinction between

g

and

g

j

421.2.5. Phonemic distinction between

b

and

β

43

2. Vowels 432.1. Phonemic status of schwa 43

6

3. Assimilation 443.1. Assimilation of

yan

“one” 443.2. Assimilation of

n

“of” 443.3. Assimilation of

kull

“all” 453.4. Assimilation of indirect object third person

as

453.5. Assimilation of imperative plural suffix

aw

θ

45

4. Sequences of two vowels 46

II. NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

49 1. Nouns 491.1. Singular nouns 491.1.1. Masculine singular nouns 491.1.2. Feminine singular nouns 501.2. Plural nouns 511.2.1. Masculine plural nouns 511.2.1.1 Suffix plural formation 521.2.1.1.1 Non-extended base 521.2.1.1.2. Extended base 531.2.1.1.3. Vowel change 531.2.1.1.4. Gemination and vowel change 531.2.1.1.5. Elision of final vowel 541.2.1.2. Apophonic plural formation 541.2.2. Feminine plural nouns 551.2.2.1. Suffix plural formation 571.2.2.1.1. Non-extended base 571.2.2.1.2. Extended base 571.2.2.1.3. Gemination and vowel insertion 581.2.2.2. Apophonic plural formation 581.3. Other functions of feminine nouns 591.3.1. Semantic distinctive pairs 591.3.1.1. Collective nouns 59

7

1.3.1.2. Diminutive nouns 611.3.1.3. Augmentative nouns 611.3.1.4. Dendronyms 61 1.3.2. Non-semantic distinctive pairs 62

2. Non-affix nouns 622.1. Kinship terminology 622.2. Arabic loans 632.2.1. Masculine singular nouns 632.2.2. Feminine singular nouns 642.2.3. Plural nouns 65

3. État libre and état d'annexion 663.1. Masculine nouns 663.2. Feminine nouns 673.3. Use of état d'annexion 683.3.1. Use of état d'annexion after prepositions 683.3.2. Use of état d'annexion after

yan

/

yat

“one” 68

4. Adjectives 694.1. Attributive adjectives 694.1.1. Masculine singular nouns 694.1.2. Feminine singular nouns 704.1.3. Masculine plural nouns 704.1.4. Feminine plural nouns 704.2. Predicative adjectives 714.2.1. Masculine singular nouns 714.2.2. Feminine singular nouns 714.2.3. Masculine plural nouns 714.2.4. Feminine plural nouns 714.3. Participial adjectival modification 724.4. Arabic loans 724.4.1. Attributive adjectives 724.4.1.1. Masculine singular nouns 72

8

4.4.1.2. Feminine singular nouns 734.4.1.3. Plural nouns 734.4.2. Predicative adjectives 734.4.2.1. Masculine singular nouns 734.4.2.2. Feminine singular nouns 744.4.2.3. Plural nouns 74

5. Quantification 745.1. Numerals 745.1.1. Cardinal numerals 745.1.2. Ordinal numerals 765.2. Indefinite pronouns 765.3. Arabic loans 775.3.1. Quantifier

kull

“all” 775.3.2. Quantifier

bezzaf

“many” 775.3.3. Quantifier

lba

ε

d



“some” 77

III. VERBAL MORPHOLOGY

79 1. Affixes 791.1. Verb 791.2. Imperative 791.3. Participle 801.4. Arabic loans 801.4.1. Arabic verbs 801.4.2. Arabic participles 83

2. Stems 812.1. Verb types 842.1.1. Type CCC 842.1.2. Type CCVC 852.1.2.1. Type CCuC 852.1.2.2. Type CCaC 852.1.3. Type CVCC 85

9

2.1.3.1. Type CaCC 862.1.3.2. Type CiCC 862.1.4. Type CCCa 862.1.5. Type C

Ĉ

C 862.1.6. Type

Ĉ

C 872.1.7. Type Cu 882.1.8. Type

Ĉ

VC 882.1.8.1. Type

Ĉ

uC 882.1.8.2. Type aC 882.1.8.3. Type iC 882.1.9. Type Ca

Ĉ

892.1.10. Type C

Ĉ

892.1.11. Type CC 892.1.12. Type aCC 902.1.13. Type CCu 902.1.14. Type CaC 912.1.15. Type aCaC 912.1.16. Type

Ĉ

912.1.17. Type

Ĉ

V 922.1.17.1. Type

Ĉ

u 922.1.17.2. Type i 922.1.18. Type aC 922.2. Stem formations 932.2.1. Formation of preterite 932.2.1.1. Change of

a

into

u

952.2.1.2. Change of

u

into

a

952.2.1.3. Change of

i

into

a

962.2.2. Formation of intensive 962.2.2.1. Gemination 972.2.2.2. Prefixation of

t

972.2.2.3. Prefixation of

tt

992.2.2.4. Prefixation of

t

and infixation of

a

992.2.2.5. Prefixation of

t

and suffixation of

a

100

19

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis could not have been completed without the help of many. I am delighted to acknowledge theassistance of all those who have contributed to this work in one way or the other. I particularly wish toexpress my gratitude to the following persons and institutions.I am indebted to the various funds of Leiden University for their financial support, which made myfieldwork possible: Leids Universitair Fonds, Curatorenfonds, Letterenfonds and International Office. Ialso owe much gratitude to Stichting De Korinthiërs for its additional financial aid and to L. Buis, studentcounsellor at Leiden University, for his advice on the fundraising.Without Professor H. Stroomer, the interesting subject of Ghomara Berber would not have come to myattention nor would I have been inspired to work on it. I am grateful for his advice, guidance andassistance. I am very grateful to Dr M. Kossmann for his contributions especially for his many remarksand the fact that he allowed me to use the systematic outline of his own work as a template for this thesis.

1

My fieldwork would not have been possible without the help of many people in Morocco. First, I wantto thank Professor A. Allati of the L’Université Abdelmalek Essaâdi for his advice and efforts to finduseful informants. I also owe a great debt of gratitude to Abdelhay Meftah, who works as an official at theprovince of Chefchaouen and who brought me into contact with native speakers of Ghomara Berber. I amalso thankful to his sister Naziha Meftah who brought me into contact with him. I am very grateful to mymain informant Muhammad Hudda for his assistance, time and patience. I am also very grateful to mywife Hayet Aïssaoui who assisted me during my last fieldwork a great deal by interviewing femaleinformants which ultimately enabled me to interview a female informant. As a native speaker of Tashelhiyt Berber she was able to communicate with the informants which confirms that TashelhiytBerber is intelligible to Ghomara Berber to a certain degree. Other informants also deserve mention fortheir additional assistance and hospitality: Fadila, Zdohra, Ahmed El Madani Akhrif, Abdullah,Abdelsalam, Husayn, Muhammad, and Abdelaziz.

1

M. Kossmann,

Grammaire du parler berbère de Figuig

(Maroc oriental)

(Paris etc.: Éditions Peeters, 1997).

21

INTRODUCTION

Berber

Morocco has the largest number of Berber speakers in North-Africa (roughly 15 million) followed byAlgeria (roughly 4 million) and Libya (roughly 1,5 million). The geographical distribution of Berber inMorocco consists of three main domains: the Rif, Middle Atlas and High Atlas and the Sous plains and theAnti Atlas.

2

The respective Berber languages spoken in these areas are: Tarifiyt, Tamazight (or MiddleAtlas Berber) and Tashelhiyt. Because census data usually does not comprise linguistic data, we can onlyestimate the number of speakers of these languages. In his inaugural oration, Stroomer estimated that thenumber of speakers of Tarifiyt is between one and two million while two to three million people speakTamazight and six to eight million speak Tashelhiyt.

3

North Morocco

North Morocco consists of a large Arabophone area in addition to the Berberophone Rif. Most people wholive in urban conglomerates (such as Tangier and Tétouan) are exclusively Arabophone while somepeople in inhospitable rural areas (mainly women) are exclusively Berberophone. Between these twogroups, we find a large group of bilingual people. They speak a form of Tarifiyt as well as MoroccanArabic (MA). In addition, there is a wide variety of Berber dialects within the Rif. We are thereforedealing with a very diverse linguistic situation in North Morocco.Within this wide variety of Berber dialects we generally distinguish between three main dialects:Tarifiyt, Senhaja de Srair and Ghomara Berber.

4

Tarifiyt forms by far the largest group of Berber in NorthMorocco. For this reason, the other two are mostly neglected when speaking of the main domains of Berberophone areas in Morocco. These two small areas are located in the more Western part of the Rif.Senhaja de Srair is a relatively small area in the West of the Tarifiyt speaking area. Ghomara is locatedWest of Senhaja de Srair and comprises a small Berberophone enclave. Ghomara Berber has been thought

2

N. van den Boogert and H. Stroomer,

Tashelhiyt Berber of South Morocco: a morphologicalsurvey

(Leiden, 2004), p. 1.

3

H. Stroomer,

In de schaduw van het Arabisch: over niet-Arabische talen en culturen in Noord-Afrika en het Midden-Oosten

(Leiden: Leiden University, 2002), p. 14.

4

The people who speak Ghomara Berber refer to their language as

ššel

ħ

a

, which is commonly used in MA to denoteBerber in general. We will refer to this language as Ghomara Berber.

22

to be extinct in the past.

5

It is still considered extinct by the Ethnologue.

6

However, Behnstedt had alreadyreported in 2002 that Ghomara Berber is not extinct.

7

Ghomara

Ghomara belongs to the province (

iqlim

) of Chefchaouen. It is located between the provinces of Tétouanand Al Hoceima and is skirted by the Mediterranean Sea in the North (see Appendix II). Ghomara isadministratively divided in three

qiyada

8

: Asifan, Taleh



but



and Bu Ah



med. The

qiyada

of Bu Ah



medconsists of three

žama

ε

a

9

: Ast



ih



a, Tuzgan and Bni Buz



ra. Bni Buz



ra which will be our focal point in thisthesis is on its turn divided in four

mašyaxa

10

corresponding to the four

rba

ε

: Alwus



t



iyyen, BniMenselman, Bni Musa and Tadman (see Appendix II).

The actual official map of Ghomara shows a somewhat different image than the traditional map (seeAppendix II). Traditionally Ghomara is divided in nine

žama

ε

a

: Bni Ziyat, Bni Zeyel

11

, Bni Buz



ra, BniMens



ur, Bni Selman, Bni Smih



, Bni Grir, Bni Xaled and Bni Rzin (see Appendix III).

12

In the officialmap, the

žama

ε

a

of Tuzgan and Ast



ih



a roughly cover the area that is traditionally referred to as Bni Ziyat.The

žama

ε

a

of Tasift and Taleh



but



cover the area of Bni Zeyel while Bni Xaled seems to have beendivided in the

žama

ε

a

of Awnan and Bab Berrad. Finally, in the official map the

žama

ε

a

of Bni Grir isrenamed to Amtar. Apart from official documents, most people still use the traditional division of nine

žama

ε

a

. We, on the other hand will employ the official map and whenever necessary we will mention thecorresponding

žama

ε

a

according to the traditional map.

Bni Buz



ra

Bni Buz



ra is the largest Berberophone

žama

ε

a

in Ghomara. It covers an area of about 150 squarekilometres and is located east of the

žama

ε

a

of Ast



ih



a and west of the

žama

ε

a

of Amtar. In the north, BniBuz



ra is skirted by the Mediterranean Sea while in the south it is bordered on by the

žama

ε

a

of BniMens



ur and Bni Selman (see Appendix II).

5

Cf. G.S. Colin, ‘Le parler berbère des

Ġ

m

ā

ra’, in

Hespéris

9, (Paris: Librairie Larose, 1929), p. 42.

6

Cf. P. Behnstedt, ‘La frontera entre el bereber y el árabe en el Rif’, in

Estudios de dialectología norteafricana yandalusí

6 (Cádiz: Universidad de Cádiz, 2002), p. 10 andhttp://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gho

7

Id.

8

Administrative district presided by a

qayd

who is accountable to the provincial council (

l

ε

amala

).

9

We will employ the Arabic terminology to avoid ambiguous terms like ‘village’.

10

Administrative district presided by a

šayx

who is accountable to the

qiyada

.

11

Colin refers to this

žama

ε

a

as Bni Zedžel. Colin, ‘Le parler berbère’, p. 50.

12

At the time of Colin’s fieldwork, this traditional map was the actual map of Ghomara. Colin, ‘Le parler berbère’,pp. 44-50.

23

The inhabitants of Bni Buz



ra are mostly involved in agricultural activities. The most important being thecultivation of wheat, corn and barley and the cultivation of various fruit bearing trees. In addition thebreeding of cattle like goats, sheep and cows is a vital activity for the inhabitants of Bni Buz



ra. Themajority of these activities are carried out in the interior, which is characterized by rocky surfaces andslopes. The remainder is carried out on the coast along the Mediterranean Sea in an area stretching fromBu Ah



med to Amtar. Along this coastal strip, another vital activity takes place namely fishing, especiallyfor sardines.Even though Bni Buz



ra is a traditional and agricultural community it seems that there is a shift in thedirection towards modernization as a result of national programmes. The national programme for thedevelopment of electricity in the northern villages for example has set the goal to provide electricity in allthe villages. Official numbers show that 90% of the

duwwar

of Bni Buz



ra are provided with electricity. Asto drinking water, official data indicates that at least Bu Ah



med and the

duwwar

Tadman are providedwith a system of drinking water. Other plans for development include the advancement of the educationalsector and the development of the underdeveloped cultural sector through the creation of a library and areading facility.Bu Ah



med is the centre of Bni Buz



ra and one of the three

qiyada

of Ghomara as we have mentioned.Many important activities are centred in Bu Ah



med. Here, an essential weekly market is held everyTuesday where a variety of goods is offered. This market fulfils the needs of consumers not only from BniBuz



ra but also from neighbouring

žama

ε

a

like Bni Mens



ur and Bni Selman. Most important among thesegoods are consumer foods, agricultural goods and home furniture. Bu Ah



med is also provided with anelementary school, a medical clinic and a small court, which deals with local affairs. This makes BuAh



med an important centre for the inhabitants of Bni Buz



ra and other surrounding

žama

ε

a

.This is also because an important road (number 414) runs through Bu Ah



med, which connects it to thetwo closest cities Tétouan and Chefchaouen. While this has some less beneficial effects on localcommerce (competition due to the import of goods from Tétouan) most inhabitants benefit from thisconnection to these cities. They attend these cities for affairs, which are not provided in Bu Ah



med suchas extending medical, legal and educational affairs. The inhabitants of Bni Buz



ra reach the centre of BuAh



med by means of public auto buses, which commute between the mountainous areas and the centre of Bu Ah



med.

Ghomara Berber

The distribution and delimitation of the linguistic borders between Berberophone and Arabophone areas,the interference between the two as well as the distribution of the diverse Berber languages remain to be

24

important subjects in Berber linguistics. The linguistic enclave of Ghomara is a phenomenon, which islikely to be a valuable addition to our knowledge of linguistic distribution as well as linguisticinterference. However, this phenomenon has not been investigated thoroughly yet.Colin wrote an article in 1929 in which he attached four small texts, which give us a general idea of some linguistic aspects of Ghomara Berber.

13

Apart from this article, there are no extensive publicationson the linguistic situation of Ghomara Berber. We are of the opinion that the Berber language spoken inthis linguistic enclave of Ghomara is highly interesting not only because of its origin (South Morocco

14

)but also because of the interaction with MA and Tarifiyt.In order to investigate this linguistic phenomenon we conducted fieldwork in December 2006, May2007 and August 2009. During these five weeks, we have spoken to several speakers of Ghomara Berberand recorded material, which we will present here. Our main objective was to make a grammatical surveyof the most important aspects of the phonology, morphology and syntax of Ghomara Berber. In addition,we were interested in the distribution of Ghomara Berber, the number of speakers and the interferencewith MA.We carried out the research through elicitation by means of questionnaires. The informants translatedeither from Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) to Ghomara Berber or from MA to Ghomara Berber. Werecorded this material on a tape recorder and at the same time we processed it on a notebook computer.After we compared the recordings and the digital material, we double-checked with the informants to besure that there were no, or at least not much, discrepancies. Our main informant, Muhammad Hudda, studied MSA. He was therefore able to translate from MSA toGhomara Berber. He is a middle-aged man who lives with his family in Bni Buz



ra in the

duwwar

Σ

amt



iqan (

rba

ε

of Bni Musa). He works as a local representative of the people (

muma

θθ

il, nayb

) in thecouncil of the

žama

ε

a

. In this council he represents the inhabitants of the

duwwar

of

Σ

amt



iqan, Mah



mudand Faliz with regard to matters like electricity, drinking water and transportation roads. In his youngeryears, he studied the Quran in Bni Buz



ra. Because of his knowledge of the Quran and MSA, people callhim ‘

fqih

’. When he is not working as a representative, he works on the farmland with his family.Because of his knowledge of MSA as well as Ghomara Berber, Muhammad was a very usefulinformant. He was able to understand questions with a grammatical substrate. On the other hand, we coulduse grammatical terminology of MSA. This made the completion of the questionnaires more efficient.While for instance it was difficult to explain to some other informants the meaning of the imperative, wewere able to ask Muhammad the ‘amr’ of a certain verb. Another advantage of the use of MSA was the

13

Colin, ‘Le parler berbère’.

14

Colin, ‘Le parler berbère’, pp. 45-50 and A. Gaudio,

Maroc du nord: Cités Andalouses et Montagnes Berbères

(Paris: Nouvelles Editions Latines, 1981), p. 107-109.

25

fact that we could avoid the risk of mistranslations, which could be the result of the use of local MA (of Tétouan). The use of MSA would also reduce the chances for the occurrence of ambiguities.In addition, Muhammad had additional information for us because of his work as a representative. Hecould supply us with information about the language distribution, economics and geography. Hisconnections with the local

šayx

proved also to be valuable since he was able to get us into the

duwwar

without any problems. As for his connections to the

qiyada,

these enabled us to obtain an official surveyof the

duwwar

, census data and an official mapMuhammad Hudda was not the only inhabitant from Bni Buz



ra who assisted us during our fieldworkand who played the role of informant. This is partly because the largest group of speakers of GhomaraBerber live in Bni Buz



ra. Together with Bni Mens



ur, Bni Buz



ra composes the linguistic enclave of Ghomara. Bni Buz



ra is the nearest to the centre of Bu Ah



med and therefore the easiest to attend.Consequently, the most speakers we encountered in Bu Ah



med where from Bni Buz



ra. Our grammaticalsurvey thus deals with the speech of Bni Buz



ra.

According to Muhammad Hudda and the other informants, the only two Berberophone

žama

ε

a

are BniBuz



ra and Bni Mens



ur while the rest is Arabophone (see Appendix IV). Most Berberophone people arebilingual and also speak MA (dialect of Tétouan). In Bni Buz



ra the

rba

ε

of Bni Musa and Alwus



t



iyyen areBerberophone while in Bni Mens



ur only the

rba

ε

of Bni

Σ

rus



is Berberophone (see Appendix I and IV).

15

Based on the census of 1994 Bni Musa had 3.957 inhabitants while Alwus



t



iyyen

had 1.858 inhabitants(see Appendix I). These two Berberophone

rba

ε

had a total of 5.815 inhabitants in 1994. Calculationsbased on the growth rate and the total number of inhabitants in 2004 according to the census of 2004 showthat the number of inhabitants in Bni Musa and Alwus



t



iyyen together was about 7.408 in 2004.

16

As forBni

Σ

rus



, in 1994 it had 1.999 inhabitants. In 2004, the population had grown to about 2.547 based oncalculations.

17

Based on the data and these calculations we can carefully conclude that the total number of speakers of Ghomara Berber in 2004 was roughly 10.000.

18

15

In 19

duwwar

of the 34

duwwar

of Bni Buz



ra Berber is spoken while in 7 of the 33

duwwar

of Bni Mens



ur Berberis spoken (see Appendix I). In the other

duwwar

and in other parts of Ghomara MA is spoken.

16

The growth rate between 1994 and 2004 was 2,451 percent annually based on the total growth of the populationfrom 11.734 in 1994 to 14.950 in 2004 in Bni Buz



ra.

17

We have employed the growth rate of Bni Buz



ra since there was no census data available at the time of ourfieldwork with regard to the number of inhabitants of Bni Mens



ur in 2004. This way we could obtain an indication of the number of inhabitants. There is no reason why the growth rates would differ significantly. The officials reportedto us that we could estimate the number of inhabitants in this manner.

18

In 2004 there was an estimated total of 7.408 inhabitants in the Berberophone

duwwar

of Bni Musa andAlwus



t



iyyen. In the Berberophone

duwwar

of Bni

Σ

rus



there was an estimated number of 2.547 inhabitants in 2004.This totals up to 9.955 Berberophone inhabitants in Ghomara in 2004.

26

According to this data and calculations, about fifty percent of the inhabitants of Bni Buz



ra isBerberophone while roughly fourteen percent of the population of Bni Mens



ur is Berberophone.

19

Thiscorresponds to the percentages, which Muhammad Hudda as well as other informants reported to us. Theyreported that half of the population of Bni Buz



ra is Berberophone while ten to fifteen percent of BniMens



ur is Berberophone.

Ghomara Berber studies

As we have mentioned before we are in the presence of view studies on Ghomara Berber. The mostextensive fieldwork was conveyed by Colin in 1928. Colin reports that at the time of his fieldwork all the

rba

ε

of Bni Buz



ra were Berber speaking with the exception of Bni Ben-Sliman, which corresponds to BniMenselman.

20

It is not clear whether the

rba

ε

of Tadman already was an individual

rba

ε

at this timebecause Colin does not mention it. If it belonged to another

rba

ε

or did not exist yet than the situation withregard to the Berber speaking portion of Bni Buz



ra has not much changed during the years, since today allthe

rba

ε

of Bni Buz



ra are Berber speaking with the exception of Tadman and Bni Menselman.As to Bni Mens



ur, Colin reports that Berber was only spoken in the

rba

ε

of Bni

Σ

rus



.

21

He mentionedthe following

duwwar

as part of the

rba

ε

of Bni

Σ

rus



: Isuka, Bni

Σ

fara, A

γ

il

Σ

azeb, Tawrart, Tužgan

22

,It



ruhaš

23

, Takenza

24

, Iž

ε

aden, Içurdaden and Tazemmurt.

25

According to the official list Tazemmurtbelongs to the

rba

ε

of Bni Musa which in turn belongs to the

žama

ε

a

of Bni Buz



ra.

26

Since it is close tothe border separating Bni Buz



ra from Bni Mens



ur there might have been a shift over time. It is still aBerber speaking

duwwar

though. As to Iž

ε

aden and Içurdaden, even though they are officially not part of

19

In 2004 the number of speakers of Berber in Bni Buz



ra was about 7.408 on a total population of 14.950. As for BniMens



ur we have calculated that the number of speakers of Berber was about 2.547 on an estimated total populationof 17.976. The total population of Bni Mens



ur was calculated by applying the growth rate of Bni Buz



ra between1994 and 2004 to the number of inhabitants in Bni Mens



ur in 1994. The total population of Bni Buz



ra in 2004 isderived from the census of 2004.

20

Bni Benselman corresponds to Bni Menselman, which is nowadays the official name of this

žama

ε

a

. Cf. Colin,‘Le parler berbère’, p. 44.

21

Colin, ‘Le parler berbère’, p. 44.

22

Colin mentions that one informant reported Tužgan to him. Colin, ‘Le parler berbère’, p. 44.

23

Colin mentions that one informant reported I

t



ruhaš to him. Colin, ‘Le parler berbère’, p. 44.

24

According to our informants and recent official data, Takenza corresponds to Taženza. Cf. Behnstedt, ‘La fronteraentre el bereber y el árabe’, p. 11.

25

Colin, ‘Le parler berbère’, p. 44.

26

Behnstedt designates Tazemmurt as a

duwwar

belonging to Bni Mens



ur instead of Bni Buz



ra. At the same time hedesignates the

duwwar

south of Tazemmurt, Isuka, as a

duwwar

belonging to Bni Buz



ra. Behnstedt, ‘La fronteraentre el bereber y el árabe’, p. 18. Colin reports that both Isuka and Tazemmurt belong to Bni Mens



ur. Colin, ‘Leparler berbère’, p. 44. Since these two

rba

ε

are located in the area between the two

žama

ε

a,

there have possibly beensome changes over time. The

qiyada

of Bu Ah



med reported to us that Tazemmurt now belongs to the

žama

ε

a

of BniBuz



ra while Isuka belongs to the

žama

ε

a

of Bni Mens



ur.

27

the

rba

ε

of Bni

Σ

rus



they were also reported to me by an informant.

27

Seemingly, even this situation hasnot changed much because nowadays the

rba

ε

of Bni

Σ

rus



is still the only

rba

ε

of Bni Mens



ur whereBerber is spoken.According to Colin M. A. Mouliéras had designated three

žama

ε

a

as entirely or partly Berber speakingas early as 1899: Bni Buz



ra, Bni Mens



ur and Bni Smih



.

28

Despite this fact Augustin Bernard and P.Moussard wrote in 1924: “Ghomara ont oublié leur langue.”

29

Contrary to this report of Bernard andMoussard, Leopold Justinard was able to outline the Berber speaking enclave of Ghomara in a map in his

Manuel de berbère marocain

(

dialecte rifain)

.

30

After Colin’s confirmation in 1929 that Bni Buz



ra andBni Mens



ur were still Berber speaking it seems that there haven’t been much reports about the linguisticsituation in Ghomara. Gaudio makes a short remark in 1981 about the linguistic enclave: “Les Beni-Bouzra et les Beni-Mansor sont toujours bilingues et emploient l’arabe autant que le berbère, notammentsur les marchés et dans la vie publique. Les deux langues sont d’ailleurs souvent mélangées. Ainsi ledialecte berbère appelé “chelka” est constitué presque pour moitié de mots et d’expressions arabes quiprêtent mieux aux exigences linguistiques modernes par leur variété et la richesse du vocabulaire.”

31

Behnstedt has done the most recent study on Ghomara Berber in 2002. He presented his findings in alinguistic map in which he confirmed that Bni Buz



ra and Bni Mens



ur were still Berber speaking. Thelinguistic map of Behnstedt shows the geographical distribution of Berber in Ghomara. There are somedifferences with our own findings (see Appendix IV/map 3), which we will discuss below. The differencesconcern the following

duwwar

, which Behnstedt designates as Berber speaking: Bu Ah



med, Bu Sekkinand Amt



iq.

32

Behnstedt cites Colin with regard to Bu Ah



med who mentioned that the elderly still understood Berberbut did not speak it anymore.

33

But Colin dealt with Bu Ah



med

34

in the

žama

ε

a

of Bni Smih



and not BuAh



med in the

žama

ε

a

of Bni Buz



ra. In the map of Behnstedt though, Bu Ah



med of Bni Buz



ra isdesignated as Berber speaking. According to our information, Bu Ah



med of Bni Buz



ra is Arabophone.There are some people though from the rural areas who have come to live in Bu Ah



med recently and who

27

This informant from Bni Mens



ur, Ahmed Akhrif, added to this list the following

duwwar

as being part of Bni

Σ

rus



: Imulayen and Bussef. Ahmed was the only informant who provided these two

duwwar

. Behnstedt does notmention these

duwwar

. In addition, Behnstedt was not able to locate Iž

ε

aden and Içurdaden on his map. Cf.Behnstedt, ‘La frontera entre el bereber y el árabe’, p. 11.

28

Colin, ‘Le parler berbère’, p. 42.

29

Id.

30

Id.

31

Gaudio,

Maroc du nord

, p. 110.

32

Behnstedt, ‘La frontera entre el bereber y el árabe’, p. 18.

33

Behnstedt, ‘La frontera entre el bereber y el árabe’, p. 11.

34

Colin notes Bu-Yah



med instead of Bu Ah



med. These two correspond to each other though. Cf. Colin, ‘Le parlerberbère’, p. 44. Behnstedt notes Bu Ah



med for both

žama

ε

a

(Bni Buz



ra and Bni Smih



). Cf. Behnstedt, ‘La fronteraentre el bereber y el árabe’, p. 11.

115

Table 014. Direct objects as postverbal clitics

1s

-y issn-ay

“he knows me”2sm

-ç issn-aç

“he knows you”2sf

-m issn-am

“he knows you (f.)”3sm

-

θ

issn-a

θ

“he knows him”3sf

-t issn-at

“he knows her”

1p

-na

γ

issn-anaç

“he knows us”2p

-wen issn-awen

“he knows you (p.)”3p

-ten issn-a

θ

en

“he knows them”

The second person plural of the direct object coincides with the second person plural of the indirectobject.

66

In most other Berber languages the second person plural of the direct object contains themorpheme for the second person

k

or an evident remnant of old

k

. In Tashelhiyt for example, we have

k

w

n

and

k

w

nt

(f.) for the second person plural of the direct object and

awn

and

awnt

(f.) for the second personplural of the indirect object.

67

Tamazight (Aït Ndhir) has

kun

/

kwen

and

kwen

θ

/

šen

θ

(f.) for the secondperson plural of the direct object and

awn

and

ašen

θ

(f.) for the second person plural of the indirectobject.

68

Tarifiyt (Figuig) has

šnim

and

šnimti

(f.) for the second person plural of the direct object and

awim

(

awem

,

awit

) and

ašemt

/

awimt

(f.) for the second person plural of the indirect object.

69

2.2. Preverbal clitic

Attraction of direct objects is accomplished by various elements (see VI/3.2.). These elements have all incommon final vowel

a

. It is therefore difficult to establish whether an initial

a

is part of the direct object inpreverbal position. If it would have an initial

a

initially, this vowel would be lost as a result of thesequencing vowels namely the final vowel

a

of the preverbal element, which caused the attraction of thedirect object and the initial

a

of the direct object in preverbal position. We have one example which showsthat the direct objects as preverbal clitics do not include an initial vowel

a

.

66

Compare the tables in this section: table 014. with table 016. and table 015. with table 017.

67

Van den Boogert,

Tashelhiyt Berber of South Morocco

, p. 11.

68

Bisson,

Leçons de Berbère

, p. 9.

69

Kossmann,

Grammaire du parler berbère

,

pp. 177-182.

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